unit summary 1

F O U N D A T I O N S :  A   S U M M A R Y

photo by Mira Eng-Goetz

The foundations of architecture lie in a complex, global narrative that is constantly evolving as new archaeological sites are discovered and perspectives change. Across the globe, we’ve studied examples of early cultures developing their own architectural foundations through a process of prototypes, hybrids and archetypes.

Beginning in 3500 BCE, a shift towards agricultural production led the emergence of extensive shore and river oriented cultures in the Americas, Europe, Africa and Asia. During this period, granaries, tombs, temples and shelters were established as caves, temporary wood aedicules and stone structures. In the British Isles, large circular arrangements of monoliths are still standing as evidence of early agrarian societies, attuned to the movements of the moon and stars.

Astronomy based architecture is further developed with structures such as Stonehenge in England, and Zoser’s temple complex in Egypt. These iconic sites represent not only incredible engineering and organization, but an effort to understand the universe and humanity’s place within it. Structures in stone were meant to last, and witnessing these monuments, one can’t help from wondering if their purpose was to convey a message into an unknown future. Is it a coincidence that the circular structures of the era relate in form to the moon and stars they pertain to? Could it be that the stacked layers of a tapered pyramid are intended to point upwards to the heavens like great mountains? Can we deny the relationship between a colonnade and a grove of trees?

Massive pyramids and monoliths aside, other feats of engineering included sophisticated city planning, irrigation canals, terraced grain fields and advanced metalworking skills, which mark the Bronze and Iron Ages from 2500-1200 BCE. This was a period defined by flux and movement. Drought and climate change brought turmoil and decline, invaders overturned cities, the writing of sacred texts gave a new role to religion, and the use of caravans increased trade. Key sites of the era include the Temple of Luxor in Egypt, the city of Mycenae in Greece and the Bird Mound at Poverty Point in the US.

Between 1000 and 400 BCE, iron rich cultures armed with metal weapons dominated and flourished, drastically changing the world’s power structure. It was in this age of weaponry, that we find the Nubians in Egypt, the Ionians in Turkey, the Etruscans in Northern Italy and the Dorians in Greece where economic power and cultural continuity led to new explorations in early Greek stone architecture. In West Asia, the Babylonian empire collapsed resulting in a power shift towards Persia and in China, the long lasting Zhou dynasty established urban planning principals that are still utilized today. Trade is was important as ever, and agricultural developments such as corn, resulted in economic and architectural growth in Central America where the first Olmec ritual centers developed. During this period, many of the architectural elements we have become familiar with were taking form: The Etruscan keystone, the temple of Poseidon oriented on the Cardo and Decumanus, the arched Ishtar Gate of Babylon, and the Temple of Apollo at Thermos—a rectangular, columned prototype for future temple design.

Around 600 BCE, Western and Central Asia were part of the Persian Empire, with capitals at Persepolis and Pasargadae. In The Americas, the Maya, Zapotec and Mound Building peoples emerged and the Mediterranean was under Greek control. The notion that man could serve god fundamentally changed the religious, social and ethical role of human existence. Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism, Zoroastrianism and Hellenism led to unprecedented expressions of faith in architecture. In the Greek Empire, continuity of architectural form and diverse surface design defined an architectural style that was both Greek and regional. Monumental buildings such as the Temple of Segesta and the Parthenon tell us something about the Hellenistic dilemma of ideal vs. real and the ways in which forms can be manipulated to attain perceived perfection. The Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian columns of Greece are beautiful examples of the design process and remind us of the ever evolving quest for modernity, while early examples of rock cut architecture at the Barabar Hills in India are perfect interpretations of Buddhism as an inner journey.

From 0-300 BCE, The Silk Trade and sea routes were established as the Kushan, Partheon and Han Empires held ground across Asia and the Roman Empire flourished into a vast civilization marked by an extensive urban architecture never before seen. Across the Roman Empire, cities were oriented on the cardinal directions in a grid system. This idea of order and consistency was both a social and defensive strategy—putting people in their places and orienting the world according to an axis where two major paths create divisions around a focal point (on par with how Rome perceived itself in relation to the rest of the world). Rome’s impressive architectural repertoire included: extensive roads, arched aqueducts, public bath houses, temples, free standing arches, pillars, markets, forums, amphitheatres, colosseums and domes—all used as signs to mark the landscape and with the Roman ideal. The Pantheon, continues to bring the Roman ideal to visitors who come from around the globe to witness the UTILITY, FIRMNESS AND DELIGHT that this monument provides. Looking up at the oculus at the center of the domed ceiling, we feel an implied vertical axis reaching up into the heavens and down into the earth where the sacred resides. To the east, the circular Sanchi Stupas in India share this implied vertical axis, which creates a sacred spot around which worshipers circumambulate. This combination of the circle and crosshairs brings harmony to architecture around the world and speaks to a universal language of form and balance that lies at the heart of architecture’s foundations. Other key sites of this era include The Pont du Gard in France, The Great Wall of China, the rock Nabataean sites at Petra in Jordan, the Mingtang Byong Ritual Complex in China and the Guachimonton Complex in Mexico.